Order from us for quality, customized work in due time of your choice.
Abstract
A mixed methods research study was conducted to explore the impact of mathematics methods courses and content pedagogy courses on pre-service Early Childhood and Special Educators self-efficacy and beliefs. The purpose was to examine the possible factors responsible for the pre-service teachers beliefs, and to determine the levels of self-efficacy of pre-service teachers regarding their skills in the mathematics content pedagogy and mathematics methods courses. The quantitative sample included 164 Early Childhood with Special Education pre-service teachers who were given MTEPI instrument at the beginning and at the end of the courses. Qualitative data were collected in the form of interviews in which six pre-service teachers who were then currently enrolled in mathematics methods courses discussed their perceptions of the topic.
The findings of the quantitative and qualitative data indicated a significant difference in self-efficacy from the pre-instrument at the beginning of the mathematics methods courses to the post-instrument at the end of those courses. However, the quantitative data revealed a decrease in pre-service teachers self-efficacy after the content pedagogy courses. On the other hand, the results of the qualitative data revealed that pre-service teachers believed the content pedagogy courses increased their self-efficacy. The qualitative data also revealed that the growth in self-efficacy related consistently to mastery experiences, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion and physiological states. Moreover, it was found that all the participants after taking the mathematics methods courses seemed to be more confident in overcoming the challenges and implementing new educational practices, which are related to some of the characteristics associated with high self-efficacy. Thus, the data gathered in this study indicated that pre-service teachers need active involvement opportunities, modeling opportunities, effective feedback, and supportive environments to improve their self-efficacy.
Introduction
The definition of the term Self-efficacy is a belief in ones capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments (Bandura, 1997, p.3). College students, pre-service teachers, and teachers could each face concepts of self-efficacy. An individual can have different types of self-efficacy concerning different academic subjects, such as reading and mathematics (Bandura, 1986). A pre-service teacher who demonstrates a high level of self-efficacy while handling a reading lesson, for example, may show lower self-efficacy in teaching mathematics (Arslan & Yavuz, 2012; Brown, 2012; Kim, Sihn & Mitchell, 2014). The available research on self-efficacy demonstrates that the concept has been studied from many perspectives (Alsup, 2004; Bleicher, 2004). In fact, it has been at the core of educational studies for several decades as one of the aspects for influencing the behaviors, attitudes, and effectiveness of teachers and their students (Albayrak & Unal, 2011; Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001). It is also one of the factors that predicts a teachers persistence in the field of education (Tschannen-Moran, & Hoy, 2001). Accordingly, when pre-service teachers or teachers develop an attitude about their abilities, they tend to determine what they can do or not do with their knowledge and skills (Lampert, 1990; Steele & Widman, 1997).
Because of the effect of self-efficacy on behaviors and attitudes, self-efficacy theory is of interest to all who are concerned with learning and teaching (Bandura, 1997). Most of the research about self-efficacy in the field of education focuses on teaching mathematics as in-service teachers (Gibson & Dembo, 1984). Therefore, a need exists to promote the pre-service teachers perceptions of their skills, competence, and beliefs about teaching mathematics (Ball & Bass, 2003; Musser, Peterson, & Burger, 2008; Prado, Hill, Phelps, & Friedland, 2007) before they become in-service teachers. Consequently, it is important for researchers to investigate pre-service teachers self-efficacy beliefs regarding the teaching of mathematics (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001). This study helps to examine the impact of mathematics methods courses on the pre-service teachers self-efficacy and the possible factors responsible for their self-efficacy in teaching effectively.
The first years of learning how to teach are important for the development of a teachers self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997; Tchannen-Moran, Hoy, & Hoy, 2001). For this reason, pre-service teachers knowledge and beliefs are two important aspects that cannot be neglected by researchers and have to be evaluated in order to support the idea of lifelong-learning self-efficacy (Briley, 2012). Consequently, it is important to increase self-efficacy because it could predict pre-service teachers behaviors, attitudes, and effectiveness in the classroom context (Albayrak & Unal, 2011; Haverback & Parault, 2008). In contrast, mathematics pre-teachers teachers with low self-efficacy are likely to show less effort and commitment in the classroom (Tschmannen-Moran, Hoy, & Hoy, 2007). Cakiroglu (2000) noted that pre-service elementary teachers should take part in a mathematics methods course in order to increase mathematics teacher efficacy (p.92) Consequently, when pre-service teachers learn and apply some key teaching strategies, their self-efficacy may improve (Albayrak & Unal, 2011).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to examine the impact of mathematics methods courses on pre-service Early Childhood and Special Educators self-efficacy and beliefs. Additionally, the purpose is to examine the possible factors responsible for the pre-service teachers beliefs, and to determine the levels of self-efficacy of pre-service teachers regarding their skills in the mathematics methods courses.
The Statement of the Problem
According to the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM, 2000), teachers must help every student develop conceptual and procedural understandings of number, operations, geometry, measurement, statistics, probability, functions, and algebra and the connections among ideas&and to develop the self-confidence and interest to do so (p. 21). Teachers who demonstrate confidence in their ability to teach mathematics have an ability to influence their students confidence and use their beliefs in their own competence to develop the required students outcomes in mathematics (Kazempour, 2008). There is also a relationship between teachers self-efficacy that guides students behavior and the actions as chosen by students to achieve the required goals (Ashton & Webb, 1986; Gibson & Dembo, 1984; Muijs and Reynolad, 2002). Different research studies indicate that teachers self-efficacy influences students achievements by increasing students motivation and self-efficacy (Haverback & Parault, 2008; Hoy & Spero, 2005; Turner, Cruz & Papakonstantinou, 2004). Thus, there is an important need to determine the best methodology to promote pre-service teachers self-efficacy. This importance can be explained by the possible impact of self-efficacy beliefs regarding mathematics on pre-service teachers effectiveness, attitudes, and behaviors (Swars, 2008).
Definition of Terms
Early-childhood/special education program: An educational major that prepares students to be teachers of learners from Pre-K through Grade 4, as well as special education students Pre-K to Grade 8 (Indiana University of Pennsylvania, 2013, p. 67).
Mathematics teaching efficacy: Teachers conception of their ability to promote learners achievement in mathematics (Enochs, Smith, & Huinker, 2000).
Pedagogical content knowledge: The combination of the knowledge of mathematical content, knowledge of pedagogy, and knowledge of how children learn (Shulman, 1986).
Pre-service teachers: Students enrolled in an education program at an institution of higher learning.
Self-efficacy: beliefs in ones capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments (Bandura, 1997, p.3). Teacher self-efficacy or teacher efficacy is considered a type of self-efficacy. Therefore, the researcher used teacher efficacy interchangeably with self-efficacy in this study (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001).
Self-fulfilling prophecies: A teachers assumption about his/her students abilities may influence how well his/her students perform and achieve (Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1968).
Teacher efficacy: A judgment of a teacherscapabilities to bring about desired outcomes of student engagement and learning, even among those students who may be difficult or unmotivated (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001, p.783). Teaching efficacy is considered a type of self-efficacy. Therefore, the researcher used teacher efficacy interchangeably with self-efficacy in this study.
Research Questions
Seven research questions guide this study:
-
Are there differences in self-efficacy between pre-service teachers who have had content pedagogy courses and those who have had mathematics methods courses?
-
Are there differences in self-efficacy of pre-service teachers between those pre-service teachers who have had one content pedagogy mathematics course and those pre-service teachers who have had two content pedagogy mathematics courses?
-
How does self-efficacy vary among pre-service teachers who have had one methods course and those who have had two methods courses?
-
What is the impact of mathematics methods courses on pre-service teachers self-efficacy?
-
Based on gender, are there differences in self-efficacy of pre-service teachers?
-
What are pre-service teachers perceptions of their skills, competence, and ability to teach mathematics?
-
What aspects of mathematics methods courses influence the self-efficacy beliefs of future teachers of mathematics?
These questions are related to both qualitative and quantitative research designs. The first five questions are aimed at investigating the relationships among variables, whereas the sixth and seventh questions are important for understanding the experiences of pre-service teachers during their teaching education program.
Theoretical Position
The conceptual framework in this mixed methods research provided a basis for understanding pre-service teachers self-efficacy regarding teaching mathematics and examining the factors in relation to past practices to improve their self-efficacy. Self-efficacy beliefs determine the behaviors of people through the development of attitudes toward their capabilities (Bates, Latham & Kim, 2011; Cone, 2009). It refers to the beliefs in ones capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments (Bandura, 1997, p.3). This term can be applied to different areas of activities, specifically teaching. This concept is associated with pre-service teachers self-efficacy that can be described as a degree to which educators could believe in their ability to promote students learning or their cognitive skills development.
This attribute is important for educators in different content areas, but specifically toward teaching mathematics. The theoretical perspectives of this study also revealed more specific detailed information about the developments of pre-service teachers self-efficacy beliefs after the mathematics methods courses. It was critical to acknowledge four factors that could impact pre-service teachers self-efficacy: mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, social persuasion, and physiological states (Bandura, 1986). As Banduras theory indicates, pre-service teachers success is related to these four factors in the teaching and learning environment. Therefore, this theory offers the perspective that self-efficacy is an important factor in how pre-service teachers learn as they prepare to become classroom teachers.
Significance of the Study
Over the years, a number of studies have investigated the topic of teachers self-efficacy and it has been discussed in educational research (Ashton & Webb, 1986; Gibson & Dembo, 1984; Guskey & Passaro, 1994; Swars, 2005). However, important gaps in the literature remain. These include: 1) a limited amount of research studies examining pre-service teachers mathematics self-efficacy; 2) a limited number of research studies examining how mathematics methods courses can affect self-efficacy of future educators; and 3) a limited amount of qualitative research studies examining the effect of the mathematics methods courses on self-efficacy. Therefore, the results of this study could help to explore the self-efficacy level of pre-service teachers after their participation in mathematics methods courses by using a mixed methods design. Mathematics methods courses can be viewed as an independent variable that shapes the beliefs of pre-service teachers about their competence, skills, and the abilities to improve childrens learning behavior (Dembo & Gibson, 1985). The teaching challenges that pre-service teachers encounter can be partly explained by the lack of confidence in their ability to teach (Enochs, Smith, & Huinker, 2000). This study will be of great significance to teacher education programs on developing an appropriate learning environment and the opportunities for customized professional growth in pre-service teachers self-efficacy.
Methods
In this study, the researcher utilized interviews and data collection instruments to gain information regarding the influence of the mathematics methods courses on pre-service Early Childhood and Special Educators self-efficacy and to determine the level of the prospective pre-service teachers self-efficacy. It was a mixed methods study involving a western Pennsylvanian university. The reason behind mixing methods is to allow the researcher to investigate while using the strengths of each method. This study consisted of three phases of data collection. The first phase of the study was the pre-instrument that measured the level of the pre-service early childhood teachers self-efficacy before the mathematics methods courses. The instrument consisted of 21 Likert scale questions developed by Enochs, Smith, and Huinker (2000) (see Appendix A).
Permission was granted to use the instrument in the study from the authors (see Appendix B). The instrument has been modified to collect additional demographic data. The second phase of the study was the post instruments using the same instrument as the first phase, and the same procedures were followed to distribute the post-instrument. The third phase of the study consisted of follow-up qualitative interviews with six students who were taking MATH 320 and MATH 330 because the study focused on examining the influence of the mathematics methods courses on pre-service teachers self-efficacy. The interviewees were randomly selected from the participants who indicated a willingness to participate in a follow-up interview. The interview questions consisted of 16 open-ended questions in order to provide a broader understanding of pre-service teachers perceptions about the mathematics methods courses (see Appendix C).
Delimitations of the Study
The sample of this study included only college students attending one western Pennsylvanian university who were majoring in Early Childhood Education with Special Education and were enrolled in one of the following Early Childhood Education courses: Elements of Math I (MATH 151), Elements of Math II (MATH 152), Mathematics for Early Childhood (MATH 320), or Teaching Math in Elementary School (MATH 330). The focus of the study was on the experiences of the participants.
Summary
The descriptive study is used to explore the impact of mathematics methods courses on pre-service Early Childhood and Special Education pre-service teachers self-efficacy. It also examined the possible factors responsible for developing the teaching efficacy beliefs. In addition, it attempted to determine the levels of the self-efficacy of pre-service teachers regarding their own skills in the mathematics methods courses. The second chapter presents a review of the literature as it relates to pre-service teachers self-efficacy. The review of the literature also provides an explanation of the theory of self-efficacy. It also outlines a summary of the four sources for developing a strong sense of self-efficacy in mathematics pre-service teachers, which include mastery experiences, social experiences, social persuasion, and physiological states. The third chapter provides the information relevant to the methods of the research. The study is a mixed methods design, utilizing both quantitative and qualitative data collection techniques to examine pre-service Early Childhood and Special Educators self-efficacy. The chapter provides a description of the subject selection for the sample, an analysis of the collected data, and a discussion of the results. The fourth chapter describes the results of the study. The fifth and final chapter of the dissertation provides a discussion of the findings, an overview, and summary of the research, as well as recommendations for future research.
Literature Review
The purpose of the study is to examine the impact of mathematics methods courses on pre-service Early Childhood and Special Educators self-efficacy and beliefs regarding teaching mathematics to children. An additional purpose of this study is to examine the possible factors responsible for the pre-service teachers beliefs and to determine their levels of self-efficacy with regard to teaching mathematics. This chapter begins with a literature review about self-efficacy, self-efficacy factors, and pre-service teachers characteristics and belief systems. A brief literature review is also included about pedagogical content knowledge. The final section is a review of researchpractice connections and conclusions.
Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy is one of the fundamental beliefs of the social-learning theory (Bandura, 1997). This concept is incorporated into education research to understand how physiological variables could influence students and teachers performance (Bray-Clark & Bates, 2003). Self-efficacy refers to the belief in ones capability to organize and execute the courses of action, which are required to produce given attainments (Bandura, 1997, p. 3). Kinzie, Delcourt, and Powers (1994) reported that self-efficacy reflects an individuals confidence in his/her ability to perform the behavior required to produce specific outcomes and it is thought to directly impact the choice to engage in a task, as well as the effort that will be expended and the persistence that will be exhibited (p. 747). A self-efficacy belief has two components: outcome expectancy and efficacy expectation (Bray-Clark & Bates, 2003). The efficacy expectancy (personal mathematics teaching efficacy) refers to conviction that one can successfully execute the behavior required to produce the outcome. On the other hand, outcome expectancy (in this study, mathematics teaching outcome expectancy) is a persons estimate that a given behavior will lead to certain outcomes (Bandura, 1977, p.193).
Most people develop self-efficacy through observational learning and experiences in social settings while developing their personality (Czerniak & Schriver, 1994). That is, peoples experiences provide them with an opportunity to develop self-efficacy. Abilities, attitudes, and cognitive skills make up self-efficacy, which play an important role in peoples perception of situations and responses to these different situations (Bandura, 1986; Kranzler & Pajares, 1997; Swars, 2005). In practice, people believe in their abilities, and thus they take chances in accomplishing tasks based on self-efficacy (Grossman & McDonald, 2008). Such individuals trust themselves and believe that they could achieve realistic results when they focus on doing something (Hall & Ponton, 2005). Conversely, people who possess low self-efficacy have little belief in their abilities and remain unconfident in their ability to achieve positive outcomes (Pendergrast, Garvis, & Keogh, 2011).
According to Bandura (1997), peoples choices to handle or avoid challenges depend on their level of self-efficacy. Self-efficacy affects thinking and can enhance the level of cognitive performance (Pajares, 1996). A persons self-efficacy is able to mobilize the motivation, cognitive resources, and courses of action needed to meet given situational demands (Wood & Bandura, 1989, p. 408). Bray-Clark and Bates (2003) purported that self-efficacy is a task-specific belief that regulates choice, effort, and persistence in the face of obstacles and in concert with the emotional state of an individual (p. 14). Therefore, it can be surmised that self-efficacy influences pre-service teachers responses, persistence, and efforts when learning to teach. Albayrak and Unal (2011) state that efficacy beliefs govern how people think, feel, motivate themselves and behave, and determine whether coping behavior is initiated, how much effort is expended, and how long the behavior is sustained when faced with obstacles and unfavorable experiences (p. 183). Additionally, these authors noted that individuals must demonstrate the necessary knowledge, skills, and self-efficacy beliefs to develop the capacity to perform specific actions efficiently. Following this explanation, Berna and Gunhan (2011) acknowledged that individuals with a strong sense of self-efficacy beliefs may show more effort when they learn the subject matter and the ways of teaching.
According to Bandura (1994), self-efficacy beliefs determine how people feel, think, motivate themselves and behave. Such beliefs produce these diverse effects through four major processes: cognitive, motivational, affective and selection processes (p. 71). It not only affects peoples judgments and perceptions, but also shapes how they perform in a given scenario (Hinton, Flores, Burton, & Curtis, 2015; Pajares & Graham, 1999; Phan, 2012). Self-efficacy theory can be applied to almost everyone (Bandura, 1997). Therefore, this research study seeks to connect self-efficacy and relevant practical applications for developing self-efficacy in the literature to pre-service teachers when preparing to teach mathematics concepts to children.
In-Service Teachers and Teacher Efficacy
Teacher efficacy is a construct developed from the self-efficacy theory. With reference to Banduras theoretical framework, Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2001) defined teacher efficacy as a judgment of his/her capabilities to bring about desired outcomes of student engagement and learning, even among those students who may be difficult or unmotivated (p. 783). Teaching efficacy predicts the percentage of goal achieved, amount of teacher change, improved student performance, and continuation of both project methods and material (Gibson & Dembo, 1984, p. 173). The views, perceptions, and beliefs held by teachers affect their ability to teach and manage learning activities effectively in the classroom. For example, Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2001) noted that teachers with high self-efficacy are more organized in the classroom and more inclined to adapt new methods. The quality of students performance and students attitudes toward their tasks are under a considerable influence of their teachers self-efficacy (Granger, Bevis, Saka, Southerland, Sampson, & Tate 2012; Guskey & Passaro, 1994; Hackett & Betz, 1989; Hofer & Pintrich, 1997; Lampert, 1990; Marshall, 2007; Pajares & Graham, 1999; Rimm-Kaufman & Sawyer, 2004).
A teacher education program at an institution of higher learning should consider teacher efficacy as one of the important factors that could affect pre-service teachers readiness to teach (Jerkins, 2001; Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2007). It is important to consider that teachers sense of efficacy is a mediating cognitive process that significantly influences teacher motivation, professional duration, and teacher adjustment (Jerkins, 2001, p. 6). Teachers beliefs shape the students learning and achievements (Albayrak & Unal, 2011; Bandura, 1977; Dembo & Gibson, 1984; Pajares, 1992; Muijs & Reynolad, 2002; Tschannen-Moran, Hoy, & Hoy, 1998). Besides, the ability of teachers to perform particular teaching tasks successfully in their current teaching conditions depends on teachers efficacy (Lampert, 1990; Steele & Wildman, 1997).
Teachers efficacy beliefs are strong determinants of the extent to which they can accomplish various tasks (Pajares, 1996). Indeed, teachers beliefs influence their perceptions and judgments, which, in turn, affect their behavior in the classroom, or that understanding the belief structures of teachers and teacher candidates is essential to improving their professional preparation and teaching practices (Pajares, 1992, p. 307).
The investigation of the influence of self-efficacy on teaching has been a leading concern for several educational studies (Battista, 1994; Bray-Clark & Bates, 2003; Charalambous & Philippou, 2003; Czerniak, 1990; Gavora, 2011; Hoy & Spero, 2005). Most of these studies relate the concept of self-efficacy belief with the teacher efficacy belief to demonstrate how teacher efficacy enhances the student-learning outcomes in school. Albayrak and Unal (2011) acknowledged that:
Teachers who believe student learning can be influenced by effective teaching outcomes expectancy beliefs and who also have confidence in their teaching abilities self-efficacy beliefs should persist longer, provide a greater academic focus in the classroom, and exhibit different types of feedback than teachers who have lower expectations concerning their ability to influence student learning (p. 184).
Indeed, other studies indicated that teachers with positive teaching efficacy beliefs can be engaged in risk-taking behaviors such as trying harder with mathematics problems or strategies they usually avoid (Arslan & Yavuz, 2012; Berna & Gunhan, 2011). Teachers with high teaching efficacy employ inquiry and student-centered strategies for efficiency and effectiveness. They demonstrate a personal belief that they have the capacity to influence student achievement and motivation (Ashton & Webb, 1986; Savran-Gencer & Cakiroglu, 2007). In their investigations, Kim, Sihn, and Mitchell (2014) acknowledged that students development of mathematical proficiency is related to teachers efficacy in teaching mathematics, and highly effective teachers have a positive effect on the student learning outcomes because effectiveness influences the teachers determination for a task, willingness to take risks, and the adoption of new ideas in their teaching (p. 2). Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2001) asserted that teachers could assume that student learning originates from effective teaching while being uncertain of their essential capabilities for the successful delivery of lessons. The concept of teacher efficacy focuses on the factors that enhance their confidence and enable them to achieve the goals and objectives associated with classroom instruction and management, reflective teaching, student motivation and engagement, and stakeholder engagement in the educational process (Kazempour, 2008).
Teachers with high self-efficacy are more willing to adapt and use several instructional strategies (Riggs & Enochs, 1990). Teacher efficacy is shown through the use of various instructional and student-centered approaches (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001). A diverse range of instructional approaches means that the teacher does not use the same teaching methods from the first day to the last (Hofer & Pintrich, 1997). Turner, Cruz and Papakonstantinou (2004) mentioned that teachers self-efficacy has a positive association with the willingness of a teacher to implement new teaching ideas. Such teachers play the role of supervisors and mentors who train students on how to acquire information and use it as knowledge (Cady & Rearden, 2007; Charalambous, Philippou, & Kyriakides, 2008). Accordingly, students tend to work in groups to acquire knowledge, and they approach the teacher only when they experience a significant setback or challenge (Czerniak, 1990).
In contrast, teacher-centered learning entails a situation whereby the teacher controls all class activities and allows little room for student contribution (Hoffman, 2010). Teachers with low self-efficacy tend to use teacher-centered learning more than student-centered learning (Guskey & Passaro, 1994). In fact, Swars study (2005) proved that teachers with a high perception of self-efficacy are more likely to use inquiry and student-centered teaching strategies, while teachers with a low sense of self-efficacy are more likely to use teacher-directed strategies such as lecture and reading from the text (p. 2). As such, it is common to find teachers with a low level of self-efficacy in classroom contexts using a traditional or teacher-directed method and technique, which is different from highly effective teachers who tend to build confidence among students, use student groups, and generously allow the learners to explore through their learning process for optimal comprehension (Muijs and Reynolds, 2002). Thus, it is important to assess various self-efficacy beliefs during education processes because teacher efficacy has a certain power over teachers actions and decisions and consequently, student performance.
Self-Efficacy Factors
Bandura (1977) identified four major sources (mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, social persuasion, and physiological state) that contribute to the growth of self-efficacy beliefs. The four factors are:. Tschannen-Moran and Hoy (2007) investigated it is of both theoretical and practical importance to understand the sources teachers tap when making judgments about their capability for instruction (p. 953). It is necessary to understand the four sources possible effects on teaching strategies, and the possible development and improvement of self-efficacy among pre-service teachers.
Performance Accomplishment or Mastery Experiences
Performance accomplishment refers to previous task experiences (Bandura, 1986) that could be constructed by doing a task (Bandura, 1986). Pre-service teachers mastery experiences could be developed by practicing teaching. It is considered the greatest contributor and influential source of efficacy information because pre-service teachers who have success in a task are likely to perform successfully in similar tasks in the future (Charalambous & Philippou, 2003). However, not all successful experiences reinforce self-efficacy. For instance, an individuals sense of self-efficacy cannot be reinforced when success is attained through unbalanced external assistance or being exposed to an easy and unchallenged task (Bray-Clark & Bates, 2003). Successful completion of a task strengthens ones sense of self-efficacy, which allows pre-service teachers to believe that they have the required skills to teach mathematics. However, there is a concern that the level of self-efficacy could be weakened in case a person cannot complete a task or understand the task. (Enochs, Smith, & Huinker, 2000).
Vicarious Experiences
As identified by Hoy and Spero (2005) vicarious experiences are those that are usually modeled by someone else. The term also refers to such methods as observation or participation. Research indicates that vicarious experiences may modify self-efficacy beliefs, expectations, or judgments abou
Order from us for quality, customized work in due time of your choice.