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Question that needs to be answered for this essay: What is deterrence/rational choice theory? What is routine activities theory? What is labeling
theory? Integrate the role of race and ethnicity in the context of these theories. Discuss the
empirical support and policy implications. (For this question that needs to be answered these are the references that you will refer to and include and talk about them in the essay)
i.Akers et al.: Chapters 2 & 7
ii. Cullen et al: Chapters 19, 32, 33, & 36
iii. Tittle, C. R., & Rowe, A. R. (1974). Certainty of arrest and crime rates: A further test of
the deterrence hypothesis. Social Forces, 52, 455-462.
iv. Geerken, M., & Gove, W. R. (1977). Deterrence, overload, and incapacitation: An
empirical evaluation. Social Forces, 56(2), 424-447.
v. Chamlin, M. B., Grasmick, H. G., Bursik, R. J., & Cochran, J. K. (1992). Time-
aggregation and time-lag in macro-level deterrence research. Criminology, 30, 377-395.
vi. Matthews, S. K., & Agnew, R. (2008). Extending deterrence theory: Do delinquent peers
condition the relationship between perceptions of getting caught and offending? Journal
of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 45, 91-118.
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vii. Cohen, L. E., & Felson, M. (1979). Social change and crime rate trends: A routine
activity approach. American Sociological Review, 44, 588-608.
viii. Dugan, L., LaFree, G., & Piquero, A. R. (2005). Testing a rational choice model of
airline hijackings. Criminology,43(4), 1031-1065.
ix. Cechaviciute, I., & Kenny, D. T. (2007). The relationship between neutralizations and
perceived delinquent labeling on criminal history in young offenders serving community
orders. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 34, 816-829.
x. Reyns, B. W. (2013). Online routines and identity theft victimization: Further expanding
routine activity theory beyond direct-contact offenses. Journal of Research in Crime &
Delinquency, 50(2), 216-238.
xi. Leukfeldt, E. R., & Yar, M. (2016). Applying routine activity theory to cybercrime: A
theoretical and empirical analysis. Deviant Behavior, 37(3), 264-280.
xii. Walters, G. D. (2018). Change in the perceived certainty of punishment as an inhibitor
of post-juvenile offending in serious delinquents: Deterrence at the adult transition.
Crime and Delinquency, 64(10), 1306-1325.
xiii. Choi, S. (2024). Examining the use of offshore online gambling sites in the United States
via routine activities theory: A SEM analysis. Journal of Gambling Studies, 40(1), 83-
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