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Introduction
Supporting sustainability and environmental programs is one way for manufacturers to show consumers that they listen to their needs and care about them. And consumers pay with gratitude: they associate socially responsible brands with high quality, uniqueness, naturalness, and support for local production. Citizens around the world support the idea of sustainable development and are aware of the importance of preserving the environment. They say they are willing to change their consumption habits if it reduces the negative impact on the environment. It is necessary to analyze how the worldview of society is changing along with environmental trends, as well as the relevance of spiritual ecology.
Types of Ecology
The relevance of ecology in different stages of the development of society has led to the fact that the science is divided into several main currents. So, there are political, scientific and spiritual types, which differ in the sphere of the involved interests and methods of influence. For example, political ecology is focused on actions of the state in the nature protection environment, scientific on research and working out of methods of struggle against concrete ecological disasters, and spiritual on change of the relation of people to a planet (Swenson 17). The combination of all three spheres allows humanity to rethink the value of nature, understand mistakes and its own negligence, and allows the world to act together (Swenson 17). It is important to emphasize that types of ecology did not arise simultaneously, but with the evolution of technology and the promising consciousness.
Scientific Ecology
All creatures on Earth do not live by themselves, but in interaction with each other and with the environment that surrounds them. These interactions are studied by scientific ecology, aimed at monitoring and developing methods to combat threats in this area. As long as there is balance in nature, ecology remains an armchair science that people know little about. But as soon as the balance is disturbed, an ecological crisis arises, and this science becomes one of the most important (Mueller 14). One of the current trends in this science is the problem of the influence on the climate of the oceans and polar regions, how cancerous tumors are formed, how the genome behaves during infections, or quarks and leptons in matter.
Other aspects include studies of the ecological and biological features of the development of cenopopulations of rare and endangered species. The term ecology was proposed by the German zoologist and philosopher E. Haeckel, who discovered that there is no special name for the field of biology, which studies the relationship of organisms with the environment (Mueller 77). Haeckel also defined ecology as the physiology of relationships , although physiology was understood very broadly as the study of the most varied processes occurring in living nature. The objects of ecology can be populations of organisms, species, communities, ecosystems and the biosphere as a whole. Undoubtedly, the forerunner of ecology can be called the German naturalist A. Humboldt, many of whose works are now rightfully considered ecological.
An important role in the formation of the range of problems studied by ecology and in the formation of its methodology was played, in particular, by the idea of succession. For example, in the United States, Henry Kauls (1869-1939) reconstructed a detailed picture of succession by studying vegetation on the sand dunes near Lake Michigan (Mueller 100). From 20th century in connection with the increased human impact on nature, ecology has acquired special significance as a scientific basis for the rational use of natural resources and the protection of living organisms, and the term ecology itself has a broader meaning (Mueller 106). Since the 70s of 20th century develops human ecology, or social ecology, which studies the patterns of interaction between society and the environment, as well as practical problems of its protection; includes various philosophical, sociological, economic, geographic. In this sense, they talk about the greening of modern science. Environmental problems generated by modern social development have caused a number of social and political movements, for example, the Greens, who oppose environmental pollution and the negative consequences of scientific and technological progress.
In the second half of the 20th century completes the formation of ecology as an independent science, which has its own theory and methodology, its own range of problems, and its own approaches to their solution. Mathematical models are gradually becoming more realistic: their predictions can be verified by experiment or by observation in nature (Mueller 109). The experiments and observations themselves are increasingly planned and carried out in such a way that the results obtained make it possible to accept or refute a hypothesis put forward in advance. In modern ecology, some problems that have a long history of research are still relevant: for example, the establishment of general regularities in the dynamics of the abundance of organisms or an assessment of the role of various factors limiting the growth of populations (Dobson, Tilman and Holt 10). Significant progress has been achieved in this area for many specific populations, mechanisms for regulating their numbers have been identified, including those that generate cyclical changes in numbers. Research continues on the relationship of the predator-prey type, competition, as well as mutually beneficial cooperation of different types mutualism.
Scientific ecology offers many methods for dealing with natural crises and improving the state of the environment. For example, the achievement of this science is the development of solid types of electricity, the idea of separate waste collection, processing industries. Everything is aimed primarily at cleaning up the waters of the worlds oceans, protecting against ozone holes and reducing the human carbon footprint (Dobson, Tilman and Holt 11). The selection of policies developed by science suggests that the development of the environment will lead to a successful fight against disasters.
Political Ecology
In this case, we are talking about the relationship between politics and environmental protection. For political ecology as a branch of knowledge, three problems seem to be key: limited resources and their uneven distribution; the relationship between industrialization and environmental pressure; and, finally, pollution and production wastes. It is this order of consideration of problems that is most logical from the point of view of the production cycle (Dobson, Tilman and Holt 27). All three problems are present in one form or another in the mentioned monograph, but the sequence of their consideration is not entirely clear, just as it is not always possible to accept their definition.
The most obvious problem is limited resources and their uneven geographical distribution. Discussions about the depletion of minerals and resources of the biosphere have been going on for a long time (Dobson, Tilman and Holt 30). Initially, this concerned oil and natural gas, which led to the adoption of energy saving measures, as well as the development of so-called new energy sources. It seemed that with the development of technology and the dematerialization of the economy, the solution to the problem becomes more likely. But the discussion about hydrocarbons has been replaced by a debate about rare materials and rare earth metals. It is significant, for example, that on June 17, 2010, the European Union presented the results of a two-year study on the sustainability of natural resource supplies (Dobson, Tilman and Holt 31). In the study, 14 components were classified as critical for todays high-precision instruments and energy-efficient technologies.
The worsening air pollution crisis, government environmental regulation, and corporate influence are the main forces influencing the development of the idea of sustainability. The main reason for this movement is to meet the needs of current generations without compromising the needs of future generations these are the findings of Nielsen research around the world. Consumers are willing to pay more for organic products (41%), goods that do not harm the environment (38%) and support social responsibility (30%) (Dobson, Tilman and Holt 74). Sustainability strategies take different forms in different countries, but they all have one thing in common: Consumers buy the change they want to see in the world. Economic development and governmental and corporate attitudes toward environmental issues largely determine the unique benefits and challenges for manufacturers, as buyers demands for eco-products grow as the market develops and living standards improve. Several levels of evolution of these ideas in the world can be traced to four countries: France, the United States, China and India.
Among the states in which the idea of sustainability is most prevalent, France leads the way. Strict policies aimed at regulating food waste, a slowdown in GDP growth in the first half of 2018, higher unemployment and accelerating inflation have not affected consumer sentiment, which remains interested in eco-products. In 2016 alone, their range expanded by 22 percent, and between 2017 and the first half of 2018, the number of eco-new products doubled (Dobson, Tilman and Holt 76). Sales of private label organic products (filling the gap between expensive organic brands and democratic non-organic brands) are growing 16% more than non-organic products (17.1% compared to 0.8% as of August 2018) (Dobson, Tilman and Holt 76). Thus, France is going in the direction of a total greening of production in order to reduce the negative impact on the worlds problems.
The U.S., despite the high level of social responsibility in the corporate environment as a whole, consistently ranks below other developed countries in terms of respect for the environment. A Nielsen survey showed that Americans are less likely to change their consumption habits to reduce environmental damage, yet nearly one in two of them can be classified as socially responsible (48% in the U.S. vs. 73% globally) (Dobson, Tilman and Holt 81). The peculiarity of buyers in the U.S. is that they show increased attention to detail: sales of goods labeled simply as grown on a farm showed negative growth (-19%) (Dobson, Tilman and Holt 81). Nonetheless, items with more detail increased sales (24% as of March 2018) (Dobson, Tilman and Holt 81). Nevertheless, it cannot be overlooked that the U.S. is actively working on this problem, trying to contribute to the protection of the environment.
In China, one of the fastest-growing markets, the trend toward sustainability is driven by pollution problems, particularly air pollution. Here, consumption of goods (especially premium goods) remains the main driver of the economy, and 41% of consumers would like to switch to organic products. Certified products made of natural ingredients and without additives are a strong trend in the Chinese FMCG market. Eco-food for babies is growing by 53%, natural baby formula by 49% (Dobson, Tilman and Holt 93). This trend is particularly evident in the category of super-premium care cosmetics. Sales of cosmetics made from natural ingredients account for 23% of sales of the entire product category in monetary terms and show the most rapid growth, with new product launches responsible for a 40% rise in the body care category (Dobson, Tilman and Holt 94). As the market for organic products becomes saturated and consumer expectations increase, it becomes more difficult to stand out from the competition. To succeed, companies will need to invest in product development, testing and research, work with marketing communications, and explain why a product is better at meeting consumer needs. As the data show, China is striving to minimize the harm of production in order to protect nature.
The fourth model, conditionally symbolizing the initial level of support for the idea of sustainable development, can be called India. Among the main factors influencing its spread are the new government policy aimed at improving the environmental situation and the development of living conditions, leading to the growth of the FMCG market. Indian consumers are gradually beginning to pay attention to environmentally friendly products, among which personal care products showed the most striking dynamics. Even despite significant price increases in March 2018, sales of natural grooming products were twice as high as non-organic ones (19.6% vs. 7.6%) (Dobson, Tilman and Holt 101). At the same time, local manufacturers in this category of goods successfully use the trend for organic products.
World Organizations
Nevertheless, the mentality of society is changing, and the ecological approach is evolving to the global rather than the national level. Thus, it is necessary to analyze the activities of such an organization as Greenpeace. As the ecological crisis deepens, more and more people become motivated by such considerations. They unite into environmental groups and movements, into green parties. Traditionally, green party and movement activists profess the principles of humanism, peace and democracy (Rull 15). A typical example of the latter is Greenpeace, which is not only formally, but also financially independent of states, political movements and industrial corporations. Greenpeace was one of the first social groups in the world to use nonviolent tactics in the fight for environmental protection, and still adheres to nonviolence as a matter of principle.
Greenpeace uses nonviolent tactics in a variety of areas. As life shows, one of the secrets of success in environmental work is the ability to focus on certain problems and direct all efforts toward solving them (Rull 120). Greenpeace usually seeks to solve environmental problems through special campaigns. Once started, the activities of these campaigns tend to continue year after year. Each campaign has dedicated coordinators, often specialists in the particular field and necessarily experienced in non-violent solutions to these or similar problems. Greenpeace tends to prioritize global problems that affect the interests of all inhabitants of the Earth. In order to move these issues forward, action is often required in inaccessible areas of the globe where mass nonviolent action is not possible. Greenpeace is looking for ways to send expeditions to these inaccessible areas and to raise public awareness of these issues.
Spiritual Ecology
The global ecological crisis of modern time, realized by mankind in the mid-20th century, raises two eternal questions: who is to blame and what to do. And this despite the fact that not all thinkers and environmentalists are not aware of the primacy of not environmental crisis, but the crisis of the spiritual (Mueller 33). It should be noted that a significant number of researchers have identified the spiritual cause of the crisis the consumer attitude of man toward the biosphere. In this regard, the issues of religious nature naturally come to the fore, since religions, as a system-forming element in any culture and civilization, determine the nature of human relations with the natural environment.
Indigenous People and Ecology
For many hundreds of years, the inland regions of Alaska have been inhabited by the Athapaskan Indians. The formation and development of their traditional culture took place here, and its adaptive complex was formed. The connection with the natural geographic environment determined the stability of the Indian society over the centuries (Hill & Hurtado 181). The originality of natural conditions contributed to the development of the characteristics of their economy, way of life, and everyday life. The ecological environment predetermined the economic system, contributed to the formation of the economic and cultural type among the Athapaskans.
The complex of taboos and the system of amulets were also predetermined by ecology. In earlier times, there was a lot of willow (small shrub willow) in the Yukon region, and this circumstance ensured the tradition of the cult of this plant and the use of its branches as amulets. In the Nulato area, an Indian, sentenced to death by the laws of his tribe for killing a fellow tribesman, remained inviolable only because, fearing retribution, he protected himself with magical amulets in the form of bracelets and necklaces twisted from peeled willow branches (Hill & Hurtado 206). The Indian was forced not to take off this outfit for a whole year, as it guaranteed safety. In addition, atheistic and totemic beliefs connected people with nature, encouraging them to treat it carefully and with fear.
In the activity of an individual and the entire society, civilization, the primary element is spiritual the worldview, the system of views on the world as a whole. The nature of human activity depends on how a separate man and humanity as a whole perceive the environment, their place and role in it (Rull 70). Therefore, the cause of the environmental crisis should be considered a spiritual crisis, namely, a liberal, consumerist worldview that assumes the primacy of the individual to the natural environment (Rull 71). Speaking of ecological religions, it is necessary to define the concept of ecological consciousness. It is understood as a set of ideas about interrelations in the system man nature and in nature itself, the existing attitude to the environment, as well as appropriate strategies and technologies of interaction with it (Mueller 54). The definition is given in the atheistic worldview system that naturally dominates everywhere. An approach from such positions suggests the idea of a gradual departure of man from nature, opposing it, which was logically completed in Christianity.
Christianity
By analyzing Christianity, its inconsistency in ecological terms is expressed in the fact that the basis of its ideological tradition is aimed at transforming not only an individual person, but the whole world. With such an approach, a Christian is always required to be active, to act. Nevertheless, at present, the ecological situation requires that a person should exercise his dominance over nature wisely and with love (Hill & Hurtado 340). It means that the Christian values based on the Bible, which educate a person as a person, are of great importance in the formation of ecological consciousness. Many texts of the Bible have a pronounced environmental friendliness, since in it the relationship man God and God man are clearly anthropocentric in nature (Hill & Hurtado 356). From this, it should be recognized that within the framework of the biblical tradition, the idea of overcoming nature by human society, about its divine dominion, was developed.
Ecology in Buddhism
Considering Buddhism, it becomes clear that the main ideological principle here is the karmic rebirth of a person. The chances of salvation are determined by karma and even more so by the activity of the seeker. In Buddhism, a person is not a special being that stands above living or inanimate nature, but first of all, a representative of living beings v(Hill & Hurtado 181). This life is determined by the principle of karmic responsibility, the transition from one state to another.
The only difference between humans and other living beings in ecological terms is that only a person can realize such a responsibility. Comprehending Buddha, people can realize his capabilities in themselves, thereby reaching the highest state and freeing themselves from karmic retribution. Man is a being with the power of enlightenment, not a king of nature (Hill & Hurtado 190). For adherents of Buddhism, observance of moral standards is much more important than worship of the gods. In our opinion, this should be understood as such an ethical principle of Buddhism as sarvaatmata , which presupposes an attitude to all living things as to oneself (Hill & Hurtado 201). The ecological ethics of Buddhism stems from the principles of anthropomorphism and the animization of nature, according to its supporters about the interdependence and unity of the surrounding world. The system of ethical relations included not only fellow humans in mind, but also all other creatures, an immoral attitude towards which could entail punishment in this and future rebirths. The norms of moral behavior laid down in Buddhism apply to the entire natural world, which is a link in the chain of reincarnations (Hill & Hurtado 202). This implies the principle of ahimsa (not to harm anything living). The Buddhas enlightenment determined the relationship between man and the environment: every human action, no matter how insignificant, is reflected in the surrounding world. This formulation of the question determines the principle of the equivalence of all that exists. Temporary (samsara) existing in nature cannot be cut off from the eternal (nirvana).
Thus, spiritual ecology seeks primarily to identify a pattern between human actions and the harm done to nature. In other words, such a current allowed people to understand their own guilt and error, which should influence a change in the behavioral patterns of individuals. In such a case, the role of religion, which, in any form, is intended to teach everyone to love and care for nature, to cherish the place where they live, is also understandable (Mueller 66). In the process of sociogenesis, ecological consciousness has undergone a significant evolution. At the initial stage of development, people did not separate themselves from nature, they thought of themselves as part of it (Swenson 81). This view was determined by mans complete dependence on the environment. Interaction with nature in the archaic epoch was pragmatic in general, since its main goal was to ensure the physical survival of the species. Nevertheless, it can be noticed, that religious and scientific views on some problems coincide. This suggests that spiritual ecology is true rather than a product of delusion.
Conclusion
Based on all the aspects analyzed, ecology is in the consciousness, and actions of humanity are evolving. By reaching the global scale, and then changing the model of societys behavior, this sphere radically changes human attitudes toward nature. By forcing a sense of responsibility and guilt, ecology is a major driver of science and culture toward remediation and control. In addition, we can see that the evolutionary trend of ecology is very logical, moving from external and obligatory actions to more deliberate ones.
Works Cited
Dobson, Andrew, Tilman, David, and Holt, Robert, D. (2020). Unsolved Problems in Ecology. Princeton University Press.
Hill, Kim, and Hurtado, A. Magdalena. (2017). Ache Life history. The ecology and Demography of a Foraging people. Taylor & Francis.
Levin, Simon A. (2010). The Evolution of Ecology. Web.
Mueller, Laurence. (2019). Conceptual Breakthroughs in Evolutionary Ecology. Elsevier Science.
Rull, Valenti. (2020). Quaternary Ecology, Evolution, and Biogeography. Elsevier Science.
Swenson, Nathan, G. (2019). Phylogenetic Ecology. A History, Critique, and Remodeling. University of Chicago Press.
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